Details
TYRANNOSAURUS REX
MONTANA, USA
From the Hell Creek Formation, Maastrichtian, Late Cretaceous (circa 67 million years ago). An adult Tyrannosaurus rex, probably male, with the fossil bones well-preserved and quite solid being well permineralized, with excellent detail on their periosteal surfaces: osteological details such as muscle scars; and pathologies including bite marks and osteoarthritis. Approximately 79 bones mounted with additional cast elements from the specimen ‘Stan’ BHI 3033, on frame mounted into an anatomically accurate hunting pose.
36 x 12 x 7ft. (1100 x 360 x 210cm.)
Provenance
Excavated from private land in the Hells Creek Formation, Montana, 2020
Prepared and mounted by Kriegerbarthold Paleontology, Germany 2022.
Literature
Alvarez, L., Alvarez, W., Asaro, F., Michel, H.V. 1980. Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction. Science, New Series, Vol. 208, No. 4448 (Jun. 6, 1980), pp. 1095-1108
Arbour, V. M. & Currie, P. J. 2011. Tail and pelvis pathologies of ankylosaurian dinosaurs. Hist. Biol. 23, 375–390.
Bakker, R. T., K. W. Zoehfeld, and M. T. Mossbrucker. 2014. Stegosaurian martial arts: a Jurassic carnivore stabbed by a tail spike, evidence for dynamic interactions between a live herbivore and a live predator. GSA.
Bateman, P.W. and Fleming, P.A. (2009). To cut a long tail short: a review of lizard caudal autotomy studies carried out over the last 20 years. Journal of Zoology, 277: 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00484.x
Bastions, D. 2016. What was wrong with Trix? In: Trix the grand old lady, Besselink, M. Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden.
Brochu, C.A. 2003. Osteology of Tyrannosaurus rex: insights from a nearly complete skeleton and high-resolution computed tomographic analysis of the skull. Soc.Vert. Paleontol. Mem. 7, 1-138.
Brusatte S.L., Norell M.A., Carr T.D., Erickson G.M., Hutchinson J.R., Balanoff A.M., Bever G.S.,Choiniere J.N., Makovicky P.J., Xu X. 2010. Tyrannosaur paleobiology: new research on ancientexemplar organisms. Science 329:1481–1485.
Butler, R. J.,Yates, A.M., Rauhut, O. W., and Foth, C. 2013. A pathological tail in a basal
sauropodomorph dinosaur from South Africa: evidence of traumatic amputation? Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 33: 224-228.
Carpenter, K., F. Sanders L. A. McWhinney, and L. Wood. 2005. Evidence for predator-prey relationships: examples for Allosaurus and Stegosaurus, In: The Carnivorous Dinosaurs, K. Carpenter (ed.), Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University Press. pp. 325-350.
Carpenter, K. Evidence of predatory behavior by carnivorous dinosaurs. 2000. Gaia 144, 135–144.
Clemens, W. and Hartman, J. 2014. From Tyrannosaurus rex to asteroid impact: Early studies (1901–1980) of the Hell Creek Formation in its type area. The Geological Society of America Special Paper 503.
DePalma, R. A., D. A. Burnham, L. D. Martin, B. M. Rothschild, and P. L. Larson. 2013. Physical evidence of predatory behavior in Tyrannosaurus rex. Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences, 110: 12560-12564.
Farke, A. A. and O’Connor, P. M. Pathology in Majungasaurus crenatissimus (Theropoda: Abelisauridae) from the Late Cretaceous of Madagascar. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 27, 180–184 (2007).
Gauthier, J. A. 1986. Saurischian monophyly and the origin of birds; pp. 1-55 in K. Padian (ed.), The Origin of Birds and the evolution of flight. California Academy of Science, Memoir 8.
Gignac, P. M., and G. M. Erickson. 2017. The biomechanics behind extreme osteophagy in Tyrannosaurus rex. Scientific Reports, 7: 1-10.
Hamm, C. A., Hampe, O., Schwarz, D., Witzmann, F., Makovicky, P. J., Brochu, C. A., Reiter, R., & Asbach, P. 2020. A comprehensive diagnostic approach combining phylogenetic disease bracketing and CT imaging reveals osteomyelitis in a Tyrannosaurus rex. Scientific reports, 10(1), 18897. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-75731-0.
Hone, D.W.E. and Rauhut, O.W.M. 2009. Feeding behaviour and bone utilization by theropod dinosaurs. Lethaia, vol. 43, pp. 232-244.
Hone, D. W. E., and D. H. Tanke. 2015. Pre-and postmortem tyrannosaurid bite marks on the remains of Daspletosaurus (Tyrannosaurinae: Theropoda) from Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada. PeerJ, 3: e885.
Hone, D. 2016. The Tyrannosaur Chronicles: The biology of the tyrant dinosaurs. Bloomsbury.
Hone D.W.E., Persons W.S., and Le Comber S.C. 2021. New data on tail lengths and variation along the caudal series in the non-avialan dinosaurs. PeerJ 9:e10721 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10721
Horner, J. R., and D. Lessem. 1993. The complete T. rex. Simon & Schuster, New York. 239 pp.
Horner, J.R. 2011. Dinosaur consensus reveals abundant tyrannosaurus and rare ontonogenic stages.
Horner, J.R., Goodwin, M.B., and Myhrvold, N. 2011. Dinosaur census reveals abundant Tyrannosaurus and rare ontogenetic stages in the Upper Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation (Maastrichtian), Montana, USA. PLoS ONE 6(2): e16574. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0016574.
Hutchinson, J., and M. Garcia. 2002. Tyrannosaurus was not a fast runner. Nature, 415: 1018–1021.
Jacobsen, A. R. and Bromley, R.G. 2009. New ichnotaxa based on tooth impressions on dinosaur and whale bones. Geological Quarterly, 53(4): 373-382.
Loewen M.A., Irmis R.B., Sertich J.J.W., Currie P.J. and Sampson S.D. 2013. Tyrant dinosaur evolution tracks the rise and fall of Late Cretaceous oceans. PloS ONE 8(11): e79420. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079420
Longrich, N., Horner, J., Erickson, G. and Currie, P. 2010. Cannibalism in Tyrannosaurus rex. PloS ONE, vol. 5, issue 10, e13419.
Lovell, N. 1997. Trauma analysis in paleopathology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 40:139-170.
Marsh, O.C. 1881. Classification of the Dinosauria. American Journal of Science 23:81–86.
McCrea, R. T., L. G. Buckley J. O. Farlow, M. G. Lockley, P. J. Currie, N. A. Matthews, S. G. Pemberton. 2014. A ‘Terror of Tyrannosaurs’: the first trackways of tyrannosaurids and evidence of gregariousness and pathology in Tyrannosauridae. PLoS ONE, 9: e103613.
McLain, M., Nelsen, D.R., Snyder, K., Griffin, C.T., Siviero, B., Brand, L. and Chadwick, A. 2018. Tyrannosaur cannibalism: a case of a tooth-traced tyrannosaurid bone in the Lance Formation (Maastrichtian), Wyoming. Palaios, 33, 164 - 173.
Mitchell, J.C. and. Walls, S.C. 2008. Cannibalism, Editor(s): Sven Erik Jørgensen, Brian D. Fath, Encyclopedia of Ecology, Academic Press, Pages 513-517, ISBN 9780080454054,
Molnar, R.E. 2001. Theropod paleopathology: A literature survey.
In: Mesozoic vertebrate life. Edited by D.H. Tanke and K. Carpenter.Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Ind., pp. 337–363
Nudds, J. and Selden, P. 2008. Fossil ecosystems of North America. A guide to sites and extraordinary biotas. 288pp. London: Manson Publishing (published in the USA by University of Chicago Press). ISBN 9781 84076 088 0. - Volume 145 Issue 4
Nudds, J.R. and Selden, P.A. 2008. Fossil Ecosystems of North America: a guide to the sites and their extraordinary biotas. Manson Publishing, London, 288pp.
Osborn, H.F. 1905. Tyrannosaurus and other Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaurs. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 21:259–265.
—1906. Tyrannosaurus, Upper Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaur (second communication). Bulletin of
the American Museum of Natural History 22:281–296.
Owen, R. 1841. “Report on British fossil reptiles. Part II”. Report of the Eleventh Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science; Held at Plymouth in July 1841: 60–204.
Persons, S. W. and Currie, P. J. 2011 The Tail of Tyrannosaurus: Reassessing the Size and Locomotive Importance of the M. caudofemoralis in Non-Avian Theropods. The Anatomical Record 294:119-131.
Peterson, J. E. M. D. Henderson, R. P. Scherer, and C. P. Vittore. 2009. Face biting on a juvenile tyrannosaurid and behavioral implications. Palaios, 24: 780-784.
Peterson J.E., Tseng Z.J., Brink S. 2021. Bite force estimates in juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex based on simulated puncture marks. PeerJ 9: e11450 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.11450
Rothschild, B. M. & Berman, D. S. 1991. Fusion of caudal vertebrae in Late Jurassic sauropods. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. https://doi. org/10 1080⁄02724634.1991.10011373.
Rothschild, B. M. 1997. Dinosaurian paleopathology; pp. 426-448 in J. 0. Farlow and M. K. Brett-Surman (eds.), The Complete Dinosaur. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
Rothschild, B.M. and Martin, L.D. 1993. Paleopathology: Disease in the fossil record. Boca Raton, CRC Press, 386pp.
Rothschild, B. M. 2015. Unexpected behavior in the Cretaceous: tooth-marked bones attributable to Tyrannosaur play. Ethology Ecology & Evolution 27(3):325-334.
Snively, E., O’Brien, H., Henderson, D. M., Mallison, H., Surring, L. A., Burns, M. E., Holtz, T. R., Jr, Russell, A. P., Witmer, L. M., Currie, P. J., Hartman, S. A., & Cotton, J. R. 2019. Lower rotational inertia and larger leg muscles indicate more rapid turns in tyrannosaurids than in other large theropods. PeerJ, 7, e6432. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6432
Stein, W. W. 2019. TAKING COUNT: A Census of Dinosaur Fossils recovered from the Hell Creek and Lance Formations (Maastrichtian). The Journal of Paleontological Sciences: JPS.C.2019.01.
Takatsu K, Kishida O. Predator cannibalism can intensify negative impacts on heterospecific prey. Ecology. 2015 Jul;96(7):1887-98. doi: 10 1890⁄14-1616.1. PMID: 26378311.
Tanke, D.H., and Currie, P.J. 1998. Head-biting behavior in theropod dinosaurs. Gaia No 15, Lisboa/Lisbon, Dezembro/December 1998, Pp. 167-184 (Issn: 0871-5424).
Van Bijlert, P., van Soest, A.J.K., Schulp, A.S. 2021. Natural frequency method: estimating the preferred walking speed of tyrannosaurus rex based on the tail natural frequency. The Royal Society Open Science 8: 201441.
Varrichio, D. 2001. Gut contents from a Cretaceous tyrannosaurid: implications for theropod dinosaur digestive tracts. Journal of Paleontology, 75 (2), 401-406.
White, P., Fastovsky, D., & Sheehan, P. 1998. Taphonomy and Suggested Structure of the Dinosaurian Assemblage of the Hell Creek Formation (Maastrichtian), Eastern Montana and Western North Dakota. PALAIOS, 13(1), 41-51. doi:10 2307⁄3515280.
Wilson, P., Wilson Mantilla, G.P., and Stromberg, C.A.E. 2021. Seafood Salad: A diverse latest Cretaceous flora from eastern Montana.
Witmer, L. M., and R. C. Ridgely. 2009. New insights into the brain, braincase, and ear region of Tyrannosaurs (Dinosauria, Theropoda), with implications for sensory organization and behavior. The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology, 292: 1266-1296.
Xu, C., Palade, J., Fisher, R.E. et al. 2020. Anatomical and histological analyses reveal that tail repair is coupled with regrowth in wild-caught, juvenile American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). Sci Rep 10, 20122 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-77052-8
Details
TYRANNOSAURUS REX
MONTANA, USA
From the Hell Creek Formation, Maastrichtian, Late Cretaceous (circa 67 million years ago). An adult Tyrannosaurus rex, probably male, with the fossil bones well-preserved and quite solid being well permineralized, with excellent detail on their periosteal surfaces: osteological details such as muscle scars; and pathologies including bite marks and osteoarthritis. Approximately 79 bones mounted with additional cast elements from the specimen ‘Stan’ BHI 3033, on frame mounted into an anatomically accurate hunting pose.
36 x 12 x 7ft. (1100 x 360 x 210cm.)
Provenance
Excavated from private land in the Hells Creek Formation, Montana, 2020
Prepared and mounted by Kriegerbarthold Paleontology, Germany 2022.
Literature
Alvarez, L., Alvarez, W., Asaro, F., Michel, H.V. 1980. Extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction. Science, New Series, Vol. 208, No. 4448 (Jun. 6, 1980), pp. 1095-1108
Arbour, V. M. & Currie, P. J. 2011. Tail and pelvis pathologies of ankylosaurian dinosaurs. Hist. Biol. 23, 375–390.
Bakker, R. T., K. W. Zoehfeld, and M. T. Mossbrucker. 2014. Stegosaurian martial arts: a Jurassic carnivore stabbed by a tail spike, evidence for dynamic interactions between a live herbivore and a live predator. GSA.
Bateman, P.W. and Fleming, P.A. (2009). To cut a long tail short: a review of lizard caudal autotomy studies carried out over the last 20 years. Journal of Zoology, 277: 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00484.x
Bastions, D. 2016. What was wrong with Trix? In: Trix the grand old lady, Besselink, M. Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden.
Brochu, C.A. 2003. Osteology of Tyrannosaurus rex: insights from a nearly complete skeleton and high-resolution computed tomographic analysis of the skull. Soc.Vert. Paleontol. Mem. 7, 1-138.
Brusatte S.L., Norell M.A., Carr T.D., Erickson G.M., Hutchinson J.R., Balanoff A.M., Bever G.S.,Choiniere J.N., Makovicky P.J., Xu X. 2010. Tyrannosaur paleobiology: new research on ancientexemplar organisms. Science 329:1481–1485.
Butler, R. J.,Yates, A.M., Rauhut, O. W., and Foth, C. 2013. A pathological tail in a basal
sauropodomorph dinosaur from South Africa: evidence of traumatic amputation? Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 33: 224-228.
Carpenter, K., F. Sanders L. A. McWhinney, and L. Wood. 2005. Evidence for predator-prey relationships: examples for Allosaurus and Stegosaurus, In: The Carnivorous Dinosaurs, K. Carpenter (ed.), Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University Press. pp. 325-350.
Carpenter, K. Evidence of predatory behavior by carnivorous dinosaurs. 2000. Gaia 144, 135–144.
Clemens, W. and Hartman, J. 2014. From Tyrannosaurus rex to asteroid impact: Early studies (1901–1980) of the Hell Creek Formation in its type area. The Geological Society of America Special Paper 503.
DePalma, R. A., D. A. Burnham, L. D. Martin, B. M. Rothschild, and P. L. Larson. 2013. Physical evidence of predatory behavior in Tyrannosaurus rex. Proceedings of the National Academy ofSciences, 110: 12560-12564.
Farke, A. A. and O’Connor, P. M. Pathology in Majungasaurus crenatissimus (Theropoda: Abelisauridae) from the Late Cretaceous of Madagascar. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 27, 180–184 (2007).
Gauthier, J. A. 1986. Saurischian monophyly and the origin of birds; pp. 1-55 in K. Padian (ed.), The Origin of Birds and the evolution of flight. California Academy of Science, Memoir 8.
Gignac, P. M., and G. M. Erickson. 2017. The biomechanics behind extreme osteophagy in Tyrannosaurus rex. Scientific Reports, 7: 1-10.
Hamm, C. A., Hampe, O., Schwarz, D., Witzmann, F., Makovicky, P. J., Brochu, C. A., Reiter, R., & Asbach, P. 2020. A comprehensive diagnostic approach combining phylogenetic disease bracketing and CT imaging reveals osteomyelitis in a Tyrannosaurus rex. Scientific reports, 10(1), 18897. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-75731-0.
Hone, D.W.E. and Rauhut, O.W.M. 2009. Feeding behaviour and bone utilization by theropod dinosaurs. Lethaia, vol. 43, pp. 232-244.
Hone, D. W. E., and D. H. Tanke. 2015. Pre-and postmortem tyrannosaurid bite marks on the remains of Daspletosaurus (Tyrannosaurinae: Theropoda) from Dinosaur Provincial Park, Alberta, Canada. PeerJ, 3: e885.
Hone, D. 2016. The Tyrannosaur Chronicles: The biology of the tyrant dinosaurs. Bloomsbury.
Hone D.W.E., Persons W.S., and Le Comber S.C. 2021. New data on tail lengths and variation along the caudal series in the non-avialan dinosaurs. PeerJ 9:e10721 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.10721
Horner, J. R., and D. Lessem. 1993. The complete T. rex. Simon & Schuster, New York. 239 pp.
Horner, J.R. 2011. Dinosaur consensus reveals abundant tyrannosaurus and rare ontonogenic stages.
Horner, J.R., Goodwin, M.B., and Myhrvold, N. 2011. Dinosaur census reveals abundant Tyrannosaurus and rare ontogenetic stages in the Upper Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation (Maastrichtian), Montana, USA. PLoS ONE 6(2): e16574. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0016574.
Hutchinson, J., and M. Garcia. 2002. Tyrannosaurus was not a fast runner. Nature, 415: 1018–1021.
Jacobsen, A. R. and Bromley, R.G. 2009. New ichnotaxa based on tooth impressions on dinosaur and whale bones. Geological Quarterly, 53(4): 373-382.
Loewen M.A., Irmis R.B., Sertich J.J.W., Currie P.J. and Sampson S.D. 2013. Tyrant dinosaur evolution tracks the rise and fall of Late Cretaceous oceans. PloS ONE 8(11): e79420. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079420
Longrich, N., Horner, J., Erickson, G. and Currie, P. 2010. Cannibalism in Tyrannosaurus rex. PloS ONE, vol. 5, issue 10, e13419.
Lovell, N. 1997. Trauma analysis in paleopathology. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 40:139-170.
Marsh, O.C. 1881. Classification of the Dinosauria. American Journal of Science 23:81–86.
McCrea, R. T., L. G. Buckley J. O. Farlow, M. G. Lockley, P. J. Currie, N. A. Matthews, S. G. Pemberton. 2014. A ‘Terror of Tyrannosaurs’: the first trackways of tyrannosaurids and evidence of gregariousness and pathology in Tyrannosauridae. PLoS ONE, 9: e103613.
McLain, M., Nelsen, D.R., Snyder, K., Griffin, C.T., Siviero, B., Brand, L. and Chadwick, A. 2018. Tyrannosaur cannibalism: a case of a tooth-traced tyrannosaurid bone in the Lance Formation (Maastrichtian), Wyoming. Palaios, 33, 164 - 173.
Mitchell, J.C. and. Walls, S.C. 2008. Cannibalism, Editor(s): Sven Erik Jørgensen, Brian D. Fath, Encyclopedia of Ecology, Academic Press, Pages 513-517, ISBN 9780080454054,
Molnar, R.E. 2001. Theropod paleopathology: A literature survey.
In: Mesozoic vertebrate life. Edited by D.H. Tanke and K. Carpenter.Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Ind., pp. 337–363
Nudds, J. and Selden, P. 2008. Fossil ecosystems of North America. A guide to sites and extraordinary biotas. 288pp. London: Manson Publishing (published in the USA by University of Chicago Press). ISBN 9781 84076 088 0. - Volume 145 Issue 4
Nudds, J.R. and Selden, P.A. 2008. Fossil Ecosystems of North America: a guide to the sites and their extraordinary biotas. Manson Publishing, London, 288pp.
Osborn, H.F. 1905. Tyrannosaurus and other Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaurs. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 21:259–265.
—1906. Tyrannosaurus, Upper Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaur (second communication). Bulletin of
the American Museum of Natural History 22:281–296.
Owen, R. 1841. “Report on British fossil reptiles. Part II”. Report of the Eleventh Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science; Held at Plymouth in July 1841: 60–204.
Persons, S. W. and Currie, P. J. 2011 The Tail of Tyrannosaurus: Reassessing the Size and Locomotive Importance of the M. caudofemoralis in Non-Avian Theropods. The Anatomical Record 294:119-131.
Peterson, J. E. M. D. Henderson, R. P. Scherer, and C. P. Vittore. 2009. Face biting on a juvenile tyrannosaurid and behavioral implications. Palaios, 24: 780-784.
Peterson J.E., Tseng Z.J., Brink S. 2021. Bite force estimates in juvenile Tyrannosaurus rex based on simulated puncture marks. PeerJ 9: e11450 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.11450
Rothschild, B. M. & Berman, D. S. 1991. Fusion of caudal vertebrae in Late Jurassic sauropods. J. Vertebr. Paleontol. https://doi. org/10 1080⁄02724634.1991.10011373.
Rothschild, B. M. 1997. Dinosaurian paleopathology; pp. 426-448 in J. 0. Farlow and M. K. Brett-Surman (eds.), The Complete Dinosaur. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
Rothschild, B.M. and Martin, L.D. 1993. Paleopathology: Disease in the fossil record. Boca Raton, CRC Press, 386pp.
Rothschild, B. M. 2015. Unexpected behavior in the Cretaceous: tooth-marked bones attributable to Tyrannosaur play. Ethology Ecology & Evolution 27(3):325-334.
Snively, E., O’Brien, H., Henderson, D. M., Mallison, H., Surring, L. A., Burns, M. E., Holtz, T. R., Jr, Russell, A. P., Witmer, L. M., Currie, P. J., Hartman, S. A., & Cotton, J. R. 2019. Lower rotational inertia and larger leg muscles indicate more rapid turns in tyrannosaurids than in other large theropods. PeerJ, 7, e6432. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6432
Stein, W. W. 2019. TAKING COUNT: A Census of Dinosaur Fossils recovered from the Hell Creek and Lance Formations (Maastrichtian). The Journal of Paleontological Sciences: JPS.C.2019.01.
Takatsu K, Kishida O. Predator cannibalism can intensify negative impacts on heterospecific prey. Ecology. 2015 Jul;96(7):1887-98. doi: 10 1890⁄14-1616.1. PMID: 26378311.
Tanke, D.H., and Currie, P.J. 1998. Head-biting behavior in theropod dinosaurs. Gaia No 15, Lisboa/Lisbon, Dezembro/December 1998, Pp. 167-184 (Issn: 0871-5424).
Van Bijlert, P., van Soest, A.J.K., Schulp, A.S. 2021. Natural frequency method: estimating the preferred walking speed of tyrannosaurus rex based on the tail natural frequency. The Royal Society Open Science 8: 201441.
Varrichio, D. 2001. Gut contents from a Cretaceous tyrannosaurid: implications for theropod dinosaur digestive tracts. Journal of Paleontology, 75 (2), 401-406.
White, P., Fastovsky, D., & Sheehan, P. 1998. Taphonomy and Suggested Structure of the Dinosaurian Assemblage of the Hell Creek Formation (Maastrichtian), Eastern Montana and Western North Dakota. PALAIOS, 13(1), 41-51. doi:10 2307⁄3515280.
Wilson, P., Wilson Mantilla, G.P., and Stromberg, C.A.E. 2021. Seafood Salad: A diverse latest Cretaceous flora from eastern Montana.
Witmer, L. M., and R. C. Ridgely. 2009. New insights into the brain, braincase, and ear region of Tyrannosaurs (Dinosauria, Theropoda), with implications for sensory organization and behavior. The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology, 292: 1266-1296.
Xu, C., Palade, J., Fisher, R.E. et al. 2020. Anatomical and histological analyses reveal that tail repair is coupled with regrowth in wild-caught, juvenile American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). Sci Rep 10, 20122 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-77052-8
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